Corrosion of Steel in Concrete Prevention, Diagnosis, and Repair by Luca Bertolini, Bernhard Elsener, Pietro Pedeferri, and Rob B. Polder
Contents of Corrosion of Steel in Concrete
- Part 1. Properties of Cementitious Materials
- Cements and Cement Paste
- Cement Types and Hydration Reaction
- Porosity and Transport Processes
- Water/cement Ratio and Curing
- Porosity, Permeability and Percolation
- Blended Cements
- Pozzolanic Materials
- Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
- Properties of Blended Cements
- Common Cements
- Other Types of Cement
- Transport Processes in Concrete
- Composition of Pore Solution and Water Content
- Composition of Pore Solution
- Water in Concrete
- Water Content and Transport Processes
- Diffusion
- Stationary Diffusion
- Non-stationary Diffusion
- Diffusion and Binding
- Capillary Suction
- Permeation
- Water Permeability Coefficient
- Gas Permeability Coefficient
- Migration
- Corrosion of Steel in Concrete
- Ion Transport in Solution
- Ion Transport in Concrete
- Resistivity of Concrete
- Mechanisms and Significant Parameters
- Degradation of Concrete
- Freeze-thaw Attack
- Mechanism
- Factors Influencing Frost Resistance
- Air-entrained Concrete
- Attack by Acids and Pure Water
- Acid Attack
- Biogenic Sulfuric Acid Attack
- Attack by Pure Water
- Ammonium Attack
- Sulfate Attack
- Mechanism
- Protection
- Alkali Silica Reaction
- Alkali Content in Cement and Pore Solution
- Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)
- Attack by Seawater
- Part 2. Mechanisms of Corrosion
- General Aspects
- Initiation and Propagation of Corrosion
- Initiation Phase
- Propagation Phase
- Corrosion Rate
- Consequences
- Behaviour of Other Metals
- Carbonation-induced Corrosion
- Carbonation of Concrete
- Penetration of Carbonation
- Factors that Influence the Carbonation Rate
- Initiation Time
- Parabolic Formula
- Other Formulas
- Corrosion Rate
- Carbonated and Chloride-contaminated Concrete
- Chloride-induced Corrosion
- Pitting Corrosion
- Corrosion Initiation
- Chloride Threshold
- Chloride Penetration
- Surface Content (Cs)
- Apparent Diffusion Coefficient
- Corrosion Rate
- Electrochemical Aspects
- Electrochemical Mechanism of Corrosion
- Non-carbonated Concrete without Chlorides
- Anodic Polarization Curve
- Cathodic Polarization Curve
- Corrosion Conditions
- Carbonated Concrete
- Concrete Containing Chlorides
- Corrosion Initiation and Pitting Potential
- Propagation
- Repassivation
- Structures Cathodically or Anodically Polarized
- Macrocells
- Structures Exposed to the Atmosphere
- Buried Structures and Immersed Structures
- Electrochemical Aspects
- Stray-current-induced Corrosion
- DC Stray Current
- Alkaline and Chloride-free Concrete
- Passive Steel in Chloride-contaminated Concrete
- Corroding Steel
- AC Stray Current
- High-strength Steel
- Inspection
- Protection from Stray Current
- Hydrogen-induced Stress-corrosion Cracking
- Stress-corrosion Cracking (SCC)
- Failure under Service of High-strength Steel
- Crack Initiation
- Crack Propagation
- Fast Propagation
- Critical Conditions
- Fracture Surface
- Metallurgical, Mechanical and Load Conditions
- Susceptibility of Steel to HI-SCC
- Environmental Conditions
- Hydrogen Generated During Operation
- Hydrogen Generated before Ducts are Filled
- Part 3. Prevention
- Design for Durability
- Conditions of Aggressiveness
- Concrete Quality
- Cracks
- Thickness of the Concrete Cover
- Service-life Modelling and Refined Methods for Service-life Design
- Evaluation of the Service Life with Respect to Carbonation
- Evaluation of the Service Life with Respect to Chloride Penetration
- Performance-based Service-life Design According to DuraCrete
- Initiation Time for Carbonation-induced Corrosion
- Propagation Time for Carbonation- (and Chloride)-induced Corrosion
- Initiation Time for Marine Structures
- Design Equation for Chloride-induced Corrosion Initiation
- Tabulated Values
- Safety Factors
- Calculation and Results
- Concluding Remarks
- Additional Protection Measures
- Preventative Measures in the Presence of Chlorides
- Concrete Technology for Corrosion Prevention
- Constituents of Concrete
- Cement
- Aggregates
- Mixing Water
- Admixtures
- Properties of Fresh and Hardened Concrete
- Workability
- Strength
- Deformation
- Shrinkage and Cracking
- Mix Design
- Concrete Manufacturing
- Mixing, Handling, Placement, and Compaction
- Curing
- Design Details
- Concrete with Special Properties
- Concrete with Mineral Additions
- High-performance Concrete (HPC)
- Self-compacting Concrete (SCC)
- Corrosion Inhibitors
- Mechanism of Corrosion Inhibitors
- Mode of Action of Corrosion Inhibitors
- Corrosion Inhibitors to Prevent or Delay Corrosion Initiation
- Corrosion Inhibitors to Reduce the Propagation Rate of Corrosion
- Transport of the Inhibitor into Mortar or Concrete
- Field Tests and Experience with Corrosion Inhibitors
- Critical Evaluation of Corrosion Inhibitors
- Effectiveness of Corrosion Inhibitors
- Surface Treatments
- General Remarks
- Organic Coatings
- Properties and Testing
- Performance
- Hydrophobic Treatment
- Properties and Testing
- Performance
- Treatments that Block Pores
- Cementitious Coatings and Layers
- Concluding Remarks on Effectiveness and Durability of
- Surface Treatments
- Corrosion-resistant Reinforcement
- Steels for Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete
- Reinforcing Bars
- Prestressing Steel
- Corrosion Behaviour
- Stainless-Steel Rebars
- Properties of Stainless-Steel Rebars
- Corrosion Resistance
- Coupling with Carbon Steel
- Applications and Cost
- Galvanized-Steel Rebars
- Properties of Galvanized-steel bars
- Corrosion Resistance
- Epoxy-coated Rebars
- Properties of the Coating
- Corrosion Resistance
- Contents XV
- Practical Aspects
- Effectiveness
- Part 4. Diagnosis
- Inspection and Condition Assessment
- Visual Inspection and Cover Depth
- Electrochemical Inspection Techniques
- Half-cell Potential Mapping
- Resistivity Measurements
- Corrosion Rate
- Chemical Analysis of Concrete
- Carbonation Depth
- Chloride Determination
- Monitoring
- Introduction
- Monitoring with Non-electrochemical Sensors
- Monitoring with Electrochemical Sensors
- Critical Factors
- On the Way to “Smart Structures”
- Part 5. Repair
- Principles and Methods for Repair
- Repair Options
- Basic Repair Principles
- Repair Methods for Carbonated Structures
- Repassivation
- Reduction of the Moisture Content of the Concrete
- Coating of the Reinforcement
- Repair Methods for Chloride-contaminated Structures
- Repassivation
- Cathodic Protection
- Other Methods
- Conventional Repair
- Assessment of the Condition of the Structure
- Removal of Concrete
- Definition of Concrete to be Removed
- Techniques for Concrete Removal
- Surface Preparation
- Preparation of Reinforcement
- Application of Repair Material
- Requirements
- Repair Materials
- Specifications and Tests
- Additional Protection
- Strengthening
- Electrochemical Techniques
- Development of the Techniques
- Cathodic Protection
- Cathodic Prevention
- Electrochemical Chloride Removal
- Electrochemical Realkalization
- Effects of the Circulation of Current
- Beneficial Effects
- Side Effects
- How Various Techniques Work
- Cathodic Protection and Cathodic Prevention
- Cathodic Protection of Steel in Chloride-contaminated Concrete
- Cathodic Prevention
- Cathodic Protection in Carbonated Concrete
- Throwing Power
- The Anode System
- Practical Aspects
- Electrochemical Chloride Extraction and Realkalisation
- Electrochemical Chloride Extraction
- Electrochemical Realkalisation
- Practical Aspects
