Thermodynamics and Energy Conversion by Henning Struchtrup
Contents of Thermodynamics and Energy Conversion
- Introduction: Why Thermodynamics?
- Energy and Work in Our World
- Mechanical and Thermodynamical Forces
- Systems, Balance Laws, Property Relations
- Thermodynamics as Engineering Science
- Thermodynamic Analysis
- Applications
- Systems, States, and Processes
- The Closed System
- Micro and Macro
- Mechanical State Properties
- Extensive and Intensive Properties
- Specific Properties
- Molar Properties
- Inhomogeneous States
- Processes and Equilibrium States
- Quasi-static and Fast Processes
- Reversible and Irreversible Processes
- Temperature and the Zeroth Law
- Thermometers and Temperature Scale
- Gas Temperature Scale
- Thermal Equation of State
- Ideal Gas Law
- A Note on Problem Solving
- Example: Air in a Room
- Example: Air in a Refrigerator
- More on Pressure
- The First Law of Thermodynamics
- Conservation of Energy
- Total Energy
- Kinetic Energy
- Potential Energy
- Internal Energy and the Caloric Equation of State
- Work and Power
- Exact and Inexact Differentials
- Heat Transfer
- The First Law for Reversible Processes
- The Specific Heat at Constant Volume
- Enthalpy
- Example: Equilibration of Temperature
- Example: Uncontrolled Expansion of a Gas
- Example: Friction Loss
- Example: Heating Problems
- Problems
- The Second Law of Thermodynamics
- The Second Law
- Entropy and the Trend to Equilibrium
- Entropy Flux
- Entropy in Equilibrium
- Entropy as Property: The Gibbs Equation
- T-S-Diagram
- The Entropy Balance
- The Direction of Heat Transfer
- Internal Friction
- Newton’s Law of Cooling
- Zeroth Law and Second Law
- Example: Equilibration of Temperature
- Example: Uncontrolled Expansion of a Gas
- What Is Entropy?
- Entropy and Disorder
- Entropy and Life
- The Entropy Flux Revisited
- Problems
- Energy Conversion and the Second Law
- Energy Conversion
- Heat Engines
- The Kelvin-Planck Statement
- Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
- Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements
- Thermodynamic Temperature
- Perpetual Motion Engines
- Reversible and Irreversible Processes
- Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
- Irreversibility and Work Loss
- Examples
- Problems
- Properties and Property Relations
- State Properties and Their Relations
- Phases
- Phase Changes
- Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixtures
- Identifying States
- Example: Condensation of Saturated Steam
- Superheated Vapor
- Compressed Liquid
- The Ideal Gas
- Monatomic Gases (Noble Gases)
- Specific Heats and Cold Gas Approximation
- Real Gases
- Fully Incompressible Solids and Liquids
- Problems
- Reversible Processes in Closed Systems
- Standard Processes
- Basic Equations
- Closed System Cycles
- Thermodynamic Cycles
- Carnot Cycle
- Carnot Refrigeration Cycle
- Internal Combustion Engines
- Otto Cycle
- Example: Otto Cycle
- Diesel Cycle
- Example: Diesel Cycle
- Dual Cycle
- Atkinson Cycle
- Problems
- Open Systems
- Flows in Open Systems
- Conservation of Mass
- Flow Work and Energy Transfer
- Entropy Transfer
- Open Systems in Steady State Processes
- One Inlet, One Exit Systems
- Entropy Generation in Mass Transfer
- Adiabatic Compressors, Turbines and Pumps
- Heating and Cooling of a Pipe Flow
- Throttling Devices
- Adiabatic Nozzles and Diffusers
- Isentropic Efficiencies
- Summary: Open System Devices
- Examples: Open System Devices
- Closed Heat Exchangers
- Open Heat Exchangers: Adiabatic Mixing
- Examples: Heat Exchangers
- Problems
- Basic Open System Cycles
- Steam Turbine: Rankine Cycle
- Example: Rankine Cycle
- Vapor Refrigeration/Heat Pump Cycle
- Example: Vapor Compression Refrigerator
- Gas Turbine: Brayton Cycle
- Example: Brayton Cycle
- Gas Refrigeration System: Inverse Brayton Cycle
- Problems
- Efficiencies and Irreversible Losses
- Irreversibility and Work Loss
- Reversible Work and Second Law Efficiency
- Example: Carnot Engine with External Irreversibility
- Example: Space Heating
- Example: Entropy Generation in Heat Transfer
- Work Potential of a Flow (Exhaust Losses)
- Heat Engine Driven by Hot Combustion Gas
- Exergy
- Problems
- Vapor Engines
- Boiler Exhaust Regeneration
- Regenerative Rankine Cycle
- Example: Steam Cycles with Feedwater Heaters
- Cogeneration Plants
- Refrigeration Systems
- Linde Method for Gas Liquefaction
- Problems
- Gas Engines
- Stirling Cycle
- Ericsson Cycle
- Compression with Intercooling
- Gas Turbine Cycles with Regeneration and Reheat
- Brayton Cycle with Intercooling and Reheat
- Combined Cycle
- The Solar Tower
- Simple Chimney
- Aircraft Engines
- Problems
- Compressible Flow: Nozzles and Diffusers
- Sub- and Supersonic Flows
- Speed of Sound
- Speed of Sound in an Ideal Gas
- Area-Velocity Relation
- Nozzle Flows
- Converging Nozzle
- Example: Safety Valve
- Laval Nozzle
- Rockets, Ramjet and Scramjet
- Example: Ramjet
- Problems
- Transient and Inhomogeneous Processes in Open Systems
- Introduction
- Heat Exchangers
- Heating of a House
- Reversible Filling of an Adiabatic Container
- Reversible Discharge from an Adiabatic Container
- Reversible Discharge after Cooling
- Reversible Filling of a Gas Container with Heat
- Exchange
- CAES: Compressed Air Energy Storage
- Problems
- More on Property Relations
- Measurability of Properties
- Thermodynamic Potentials and Maxwell Relations
- Two Useful Relations
- Relation between Specific Heats
- Measurement of Properties
- Example: Gibbs Free Energy as Potential
- Compressibility, Thermal Expansion
- Example: Van der Waals Gas
- Joule-Thomson Coefficient
- Example: Inversion Curve for the Van der Waals Gas
- Problems
- Thermodynamic Equilibrium
- Equilibrium Conditions
- Equilibrium in Isolated Systems
- Barometric and Hydrostatic Formulas
- Thermodynamic Stability
- Equilibrium in Non-isolated Systems
- Interpretation of the Barometric Formula
- Equilibrium in Heterogeneous Systems
- Phase Equilibrium
- Example: Phase Equilibrium for the Van der Waals
- Gas
- Clapeyron Equation
- Example: Estimate of Heat of Evaporation
- Example: Ice Skating
- Problems
- Mixtures
- Introduction
- Mixture Composition
- Example: Composition and Molar Mass of Air
- Mixture Properties
- Mixing Volume, Heat of Mixing and Entropy of Mixing
- Ideal Gas Mixtures
- Energy, Enthalpy and Specific Heats for Ideal Gases
- Entropy of Mixing for Ideal Gas
- Gibbs Paradox
- Example: Isentropic Expansion through a Nozzle
- Example: Isochoric Mixing of Two Gases at
- Different p, T
- Ideal Mixtures
- Entropy of Mixing and Separation Work
- Non-ideal Mixtures
- Problems
- Psychrometrics
- Characterization of Moist Air
- Dewpoint
- Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperature
- Psychrometric Chart
- Dehumidification
- Humidification with Steam
- Evaporative Cooling
- Adiabatic Mixing
- Cooling Towers
- Example: Cooling Tower
- Problems
- The Chemical Potential
- Definition and Interpretation
- Properties of the Chemical Potential
- Gibbs and Gibbs-Duhem Equations
- Mass Based Chemical Potential
- The Chemical Potential for an Ideal Mixture
- The Chemical Potential for an Ideal Gas Mixture
- The Chemical Potential as Driving Force for Mass
- Transfer
- Problems
- Mixing and Separation
- Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
- Osmotic Pressure for Dilute Solutions
- Example: Pfeffer Tube
- Desalination in a Continuous Process
- Reversible Mixing: Osmotic Power Generation
- Example: Desalination in Piston-Cylinder Device
- Example: Removal of CO
- Problems
- Phase Equilibrium in Mixtures
- Phase Mixtures
- Gibbs’ Phase Rule
- Liquid-Vapor-Mixtures: Idealized Raoult’s Law
- Phase Diagrams for Binary Mixtures
- Distillation
- Saturation Pressure and Temperature of a Solvent
- Freezing of a Liquid Solution
- Non-ideal Mixtures: Activity and Fugacity
- A Simple Model for Heat of Mixing and Activity
- Gas Solubility: Henry’s Law
- Phase Diagrams with Azeotropes
- Problems
- Reacting Mixtures
- Stoichiometric Coefficients
- Mass and Mole Balances
- Heat of Reaction
- Heating Value
- Enthalpy of Formation
- The Third Law of Thermodynamics
- The Third Law and Absolute Zero
- Law of Mass Action
- Law of Mass Action for Ideal Mixtures and Ideal Gases
- Example: NH Production (Haber-Bosch Process)
- Le Chatelier Principle
- Multiple Reactions
- Problems
- Activation of Reactions
- Approaching Chemical Equilibrium
- Reaction Rates and the Chemical Constant
- Gibbs Free Energy of Activation
- Entropy Generation
- Problems
- Combustion
- Fuels
- Combustion Air
- Example: Mole and Mass Flow Balances
- Example: Exhaust Water
- First and Second Law for Combustion Systems
- Adiabatic Flame Temperature
- Example: Adiabatic Flame Temperature
- Closed System Combustion
- Example: Closed System Combustion
- Entropy Generation in Closed System Combustion
- Work Potential of a Fuel
- Example: Work Losses in a CH Fired Steam
- Power Plant
- Problems
- Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells
- Fuel Cells
- Fuel Cell Potential
- Fuel Cell Efficiency
- Nernst Equation
- Mass Transfer Losses
- Resistance Losses
- Activation Overpotential
- Voltage/Current and Power/Current Diagrams
- Crossover Losses
- Electrolyzers
- Hydrogen