Thermodynamics and Energy Conversion

Thermodynamics and Energy Conversion by Henning Struchtrup

Contents of Thermodynamics and Energy Conversion

• Introduction: Why Thermodynamics?
• Energy and Work in Our World
• Mechanical and Thermodynamical Forces
• Systems, Balance Laws, Property Relations
• Thermodynamics as Engineering Science
• Thermodynamic Analysis
• Applications
• Systems, States, and Processes
• The Closed System
• Micro and Macro
• Mechanical State Properties
• Extensive and Intensive Properties
• Specific Properties
• Molar Properties
• Inhomogeneous States
• Processes and Equilibrium States
• Quasi-static and Fast Processes
• Reversible and Irreversible Processes
• Temperature and the Zeroth Law
• Thermometers and Temperature Scale
• Gas Temperature Scale
• Thermal Equation of State
• Ideal Gas Law
• A Note on Problem Solving
• Example: Air in a Room
• Example: Air in a Refrigerator
• More on Pressure
• The First Law of Thermodynamics
• Conservation of Energy
• Total Energy
• Kinetic Energy
• Potential Energy
• Internal Energy and the Caloric Equation of State
• Work and Power
• Exact and Inexact Differentials
• Heat Transfer
• The First Law for Reversible Processes
• The Specific Heat at Constant Volume
• Enthalpy
• Example: Equilibration of Temperature
• Example: Uncontrolled Expansion of a Gas
• Example: Friction Loss
• Example: Heating Problems
• Problems
• The Second Law of Thermodynamics
• The Second Law
• Entropy and the Trend to Equilibrium
• Entropy Flux
• Entropy in Equilibrium
• Entropy as Property: The Gibbs Equation
• T-S-Diagram
• The Entropy Balance
• The Direction of Heat Transfer
• Internal Friction
• Newton’s Law of Cooling
• Zeroth Law and Second Law
• Example: Equilibration of Temperature
• Example: Uncontrolled Expansion of a Gas
• What Is Entropy?
• Entropy and Disorder
• Entropy and Life
• The Entropy Flux Revisited
• Problems
• Energy Conversion and the Second Law
• Energy Conversion
• Heat Engines
• The Kelvin-Planck Statement
• Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
• Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements
• Thermodynamic Temperature
• Perpetual Motion Engines
• Reversible and Irreversible Processes
• Internally and Externally Reversible Processes
• Irreversibility and Work Loss
• Examples
• Problems
• Properties and Property Relations
• State Properties and Their Relations
• Phases
• Phase Changes
• Saturated Liquid-Vapor Mixtures
• Identifying States
• Example: Condensation of Saturated Steam
• Superheated Vapor
• Compressed Liquid
• The Ideal Gas
• Monatomic Gases (Noble Gases)
• Specific Heats and Cold Gas Approximation
• Real Gases
• Fully Incompressible Solids and Liquids
• Problems
• Reversible Processes in Closed Systems
• Standard Processes
• Basic Equations
• Closed System Cycles
• Thermodynamic Cycles
• Carnot Cycle
• Carnot Refrigeration Cycle
• Internal Combustion Engines
• Otto Cycle
• Example: Otto Cycle
• Diesel Cycle
• Example: Diesel Cycle
• Dual Cycle
• Atkinson Cycle
• Problems
• Open Systems
• Flows in Open Systems
• Conservation of Mass
• Flow Work and Energy Transfer
• Entropy Transfer
• Open Systems in Steady State Processes
• One Inlet, One Exit Systems
• Entropy Generation in Mass Transfer
• Adiabatic Compressors, Turbines and Pumps
• Heating and Cooling of a Pipe Flow
• Throttling Devices
• Adiabatic Nozzles and Diffusers
• Isentropic Efficiencies
• Summary: Open System Devices
• Examples: Open System Devices
• Closed Heat Exchangers
• Open Heat Exchangers: Adiabatic Mixing
• Examples: Heat Exchangers
• Problems
• Basic Open System Cycles
• Steam Turbine: Rankine Cycle
• Example: Rankine Cycle
• Vapor Refrigeration/Heat Pump Cycle
• Example: Vapor Compression Refrigerator
• Gas Turbine: Brayton Cycle
• Example: Brayton Cycle
• Gas Refrigeration System: Inverse Brayton Cycle
• Problems
• Efficiencies and Irreversible Losses
• Irreversibility and Work Loss
• Reversible Work and Second Law Efficiency
• Example: Carnot Engine with External Irreversibility
• Example: Space Heating
• Example: Entropy Generation in Heat Transfer
• Work Potential of a Flow (Exhaust Losses)
• Heat Engine Driven by Hot Combustion Gas
• Exergy
• Problems
• Vapor Engines
• Boiler Exhaust Regeneration
• Regenerative Rankine Cycle
• Example: Steam Cycles with Feedwater Heaters
• Cogeneration Plants
• Refrigeration Systems
• Linde Method for Gas Liquefaction
• Problems
• Gas Engines
• Stirling Cycle
• Ericsson Cycle
• Compression with Intercooling
• Gas Turbine Cycles with Regeneration and Reheat
• Brayton Cycle with Intercooling and Reheat
• Combined Cycle
• The Solar Tower
• Simple Chimney
• Aircraft Engines
• Problems
• Compressible Flow: Nozzles and Diffusers
• Sub- and Supersonic Flows
• Speed of Sound
• Speed of Sound in an Ideal Gas
• Area-Velocity Relation
• Nozzle Flows
• Converging Nozzle
• Example: Safety Valve
• Laval Nozzle
• Rockets, Ramjet and Scramjet
• Example: Ramjet
• Problems
• Transient and Inhomogeneous Processes in Open Systems
• Introduction
• Heat Exchangers
• Heating of a House
• Reversible Filling of an Adiabatic Container
• Reversible Discharge from an Adiabatic Container
• Reversible Discharge after Cooling
• Reversible Filling of a Gas Container with Heat
• Exchange
• CAES: Compressed Air Energy Storage
• Problems
• More on Property Relations
• Measurability of Properties
• Thermodynamic Potentials and Maxwell Relations
• Two Useful Relations
• Relation between Specific Heats
• Measurement of Properties
• Example: Gibbs Free Energy as Potential
• Compressibility, Thermal Expansion
• Example: Van der Waals Gas
• Joule-Thomson Coefficient
• Example: Inversion Curve for the Van der Waals Gas
• Problems
• Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• Equilibrium Conditions
• Equilibrium in Isolated Systems
• Barometric and Hydrostatic Formulas
• Thermodynamic Stability
• Equilibrium in Non-isolated Systems
• Interpretation of the Barometric Formula
• Equilibrium in Heterogeneous Systems
• Phase Equilibrium
• Example: Phase Equilibrium for the Van der Waals
• Gas
• Clapeyron Equation
• Example: Estimate of Heat of Evaporation
• Example: Ice Skating
• Problems
• Mixtures
• Introduction
• Mixture Composition
• Example: Composition and Molar Mass of Air
• Mixture Properties
• Mixing Volume, Heat of Mixing and Entropy of Mixing
• Ideal Gas Mixtures
• Energy, Enthalpy and Specific Heats for Ideal Gases
• Entropy of Mixing for Ideal Gas
• Gibbs Paradox
• Example: Isentropic Expansion through a Nozzle
• Example: Isochoric Mixing of Two Gases at
• Different p, T
• Ideal Mixtures
• Entropy of Mixing and Separation Work
• Non-ideal Mixtures
• Problems
• Psychrometrics
• Characterization of Moist Air
• Dewpoint
• Adiabatic Saturation and Wet-Bulb Temperature
• Psychrometric Chart
• Dehumidification
• Humidification with Steam
• Evaporative Cooling
• Adiabatic Mixing
• Cooling Towers
• Example: Cooling Tower
• Problems
• The Chemical Potential
• Definition and Interpretation
• Properties of the Chemical Potential
• Gibbs and Gibbs-Duhem Equations
• Mass Based Chemical Potential
• The Chemical Potential for an Ideal Mixture
• The Chemical Potential for an Ideal Gas Mixture
• The Chemical Potential as Driving Force for Mass
• Transfer
• Problems
• Mixing and Separation
• Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
• Osmotic Pressure for Dilute Solutions
• Example: Pfeffer Tube
• Desalination in a Continuous Process
• Reversible Mixing: Osmotic Power Generation
• Example: Desalination in Piston-Cylinder Device
• Example: Removal of CO
• Problems
• Phase Equilibrium in Mixtures
• Phase Mixtures
• Gibbs’ Phase Rule
• Liquid-Vapor-Mixtures: Idealized Raoult’s Law
• Phase Diagrams for Binary Mixtures
• Distillation
• Saturation Pressure and Temperature of a Solvent
• Freezing of a Liquid Solution
• Non-ideal Mixtures: Activity and Fugacity
• A Simple Model for Heat of Mixing and Activity
• Gas Solubility: Henry’s Law
• Phase Diagrams with Azeotropes
• Problems
• Reacting Mixtures
• Stoichiometric Coefficients
• Mass and Mole Balances
• Heat of Reaction
• Heating Value
• Enthalpy of Formation
• The Third Law of Thermodynamics
• The Third Law and Absolute Zero
• Law of Mass Action
• Law of Mass Action for Ideal Mixtures and Ideal Gases
• Example: NH Production (Haber-Bosch Process)
• Le Chatelier Principle
• Multiple Reactions
• Problems
• Activation of Reactions
• Approaching Chemical Equilibrium
• Reaction Rates and the Chemical Constant
• Gibbs Free Energy of Activation
• Entropy Generation
• Problems
• Combustion
• Fuels
• Combustion Air
• Example: Mole and Mass Flow Balances
• Example: Exhaust Water
• First and Second Law for Combustion Systems
• Adiabatic Flame Temperature
• Example: Adiabatic Flame Temperature
• Closed System Combustion
• Example: Closed System Combustion
• Entropy Generation in Closed System Combustion
• Work Potential of a Fuel
• Example: Work Losses in a CH Fired Steam
• Power Plant
• Problems
• Thermodynamics of Fuel Cells
• Fuel Cells
• Fuel Cell Potential
• Fuel Cell Efficiency
• Nernst Equation
• Mass Transfer Losses
• Resistance Losses
• Activation Overpotential
• Voltage/Current and Power/Current Diagrams
• Crossover Losses
• Electrolyzers
• Hydrogen